S and their corresponding Homatropine (methylbromide) custom synthesis ligands is consistent with signals known to be required for lymphocyte recruitment to the intestinal mucosa, and with formation and maturation of B cell-rich isolated lymphoid follicles (ILF, ([24,25], see below). To test whether enteric rotavirus infection affected KDM5A-IN-1 induction of these genes by GRA, mice were infected for 18 hours with murine rotavirus strain EW prior to administration of GRA. The same pattern of gene expression was observed (Table 1), indicating virus replication does not modulate the signal-inducing activity of GRA early post-infection. These results suggest GRA likely has a direct effect on specific cellular targets in the small intestinal mucosa that results in coordinated chemokine and receptor gene expression.Cxcr5 Ccl19 Ccr6 Ccr7 Ccr9 Cxcl13 IFNc Il10 Lta Ltb Ccl21bDuodenum 30.0 3.4 9.4 5.3 2.6 4.2 2.6 2.6 6.8 4.2 NDIleum 21.0 15.7 12.5 10.4 2.2 4.6 1.4 1.6 8.5 6.2 3.+EW 23.4 13.8 9.8 6.4 1.3 7.1 ND 1.3 4.3 4.1 2.Representative data are shown for RNA isolated from duodenal or ileal tissue. Data shown for duodenal tissue are from the initial full array. Data from ileal sections from uninfected and EW infected mice were obtained with the custom array. Data are presented as fold-increase over mock-treated controls. ND ?not done. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049491.tImmune Cell Populations Induced in MLNs and PPs by GRAThe observed pattern of chemokine and receptor gene expression led us to examine the effects of GRA on immune cell populations at mucosal inductive sites. Mice were administered GRA or vehicle and infected with EW or mock-infected. Animals were sacrificed nine days post-infection and immune cell populations in the PPs and MLNs were analyzed by flow cytometry (Figure 1). The percentage of CD4+ T cells increased in GRA-treated, uninfected mice compared to vehicle-treatedcontrols in the MLNs, but not in the PPs. In the PPs, CD8+ T cells were significantly increased in GRA-treated, infected mice relative to vehicle-treated, infected mice. CD8+ T cells also appeared to increase in the MLNs in GRA-treated, uninfected mice compared to vehicle-treated animals, but this increase did not score as significant. These data suggest GRA may have an effect on T cell accumulation in these inductive tissues, particularly CD8+ T cells in PP of infected mice. Analysis of myeloid cell populations in GRA- or vehicle-treated, infected animals showed significant differences in dendritic cell (DC) subsets CD11chigh and CD11clow, as well as macrophage (CD11b+) cell populations in the MLNs. The only significant difference 1407003 observed in the PPs was CD11b+ cells in GRA treated, uninfected mice. A striking difference in the CD138+ population was observed between mice given GRA and mice administered vehicle. CD138 (syndecan-1) is expressed on pre-B and immature B cells in the bone marrow, absent on circulating B cells, and re-expressed on plasma cells [26]. GRA-treated mice had a significantly higher percentage of CD138+ cells than vehicle-treated mice both in the MLNs and the PPs (Figure 1). This difference was not observed in GRA-treated infected mice, likely overshadowed by influx of lymphocytes into these tissues in response to virus infection. To investigate this further and determine the kinetics of the initial response, mice (uninfected) were gavaged with GRA or vehicle, and MLNs and PPs were harvested 24 and 48 hours posttreatment (Figure 2). CD138+ cells were increased in both tissues by 48 hours in anim.S and their corresponding ligands is consistent with signals known to be required for lymphocyte recruitment to the intestinal mucosa, and with formation and maturation of B cell-rich isolated lymphoid follicles (ILF, ([24,25], see below). To test whether enteric rotavirus infection affected induction of these genes by GRA, mice were infected for 18 hours with murine rotavirus strain EW prior to administration of GRA. The same pattern of gene expression was observed (Table 1), indicating virus replication does not modulate the signal-inducing activity of GRA early post-infection. These results suggest GRA likely has a direct effect on specific cellular targets in the small intestinal mucosa that results in coordinated chemokine and receptor gene expression.Cxcr5 Ccl19 Ccr6 Ccr7 Ccr9 Cxcl13 IFNc Il10 Lta Ltb Ccl21bDuodenum 30.0 3.4 9.4 5.3 2.6 4.2 2.6 2.6 6.8 4.2 NDIleum 21.0 15.7 12.5 10.4 2.2 4.6 1.4 1.6 8.5 6.2 3.+EW 23.4 13.8 9.8 6.4 1.3 7.1 ND 1.3 4.3 4.1 2.Representative data are shown for RNA isolated from duodenal or ileal tissue. Data shown for duodenal tissue are from the initial full array. Data from ileal sections from uninfected and EW infected mice were obtained with the custom array. Data are presented as fold-increase over mock-treated controls. ND ?not done. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049491.tImmune Cell Populations Induced in MLNs and PPs by GRAThe observed pattern of chemokine and receptor gene expression led us to examine the effects of GRA on immune cell populations at mucosal inductive sites. Mice were administered GRA or vehicle and infected with EW or mock-infected. Animals were sacrificed nine days post-infection and immune cell populations in the PPs and MLNs were analyzed by flow cytometry (Figure 1). The percentage of CD4+ T cells increased in GRA-treated, uninfected mice compared to vehicle-treatedcontrols in the MLNs, but not in the PPs. In the PPs, CD8+ T cells were significantly increased in GRA-treated, infected mice relative to vehicle-treated, infected mice. CD8+ T cells also appeared to increase in the MLNs in GRA-treated, uninfected mice compared to vehicle-treated animals, but this increase did not score as significant. These data suggest GRA may have an effect on T cell accumulation in these inductive tissues, particularly CD8+ T cells in PP of infected mice. Analysis of myeloid cell populations in GRA- or vehicle-treated, infected animals showed significant differences in dendritic cell (DC) subsets CD11chigh and CD11clow, as well as macrophage (CD11b+) cell populations in the MLNs. The only significant difference 1407003 observed in the PPs was CD11b+ cells in GRA treated, uninfected mice. A striking difference in the CD138+ population was observed between mice given GRA and mice administered vehicle. CD138 (syndecan-1) is expressed on pre-B and immature B cells in the bone marrow, absent on circulating B cells, and re-expressed on plasma cells [26]. GRA-treated mice had a significantly higher percentage of CD138+ cells than vehicle-treated mice both in the MLNs and the PPs (Figure 1). This difference was not observed in GRA-treated infected mice, likely overshadowed by influx of lymphocytes into these tissues in response to virus infection. To investigate this further and determine the kinetics of the initial response, mice (uninfected) were gavaged with GRA or vehicle, and MLNs and PPs were harvested 24 and 48 hours posttreatment (Figure 2). CD138+ cells were increased in both tissues by 48 hours in anim.