Ally the apoptosis of bone marrow. The numerical alterations of Th22 subset in early and late disease stage would suggest that shifty in the dynamics of Th22 could be a parameter affecting disease progression, exerting antithetical effects in the regulation of immune homeostasis and tumor immunity. Blockade of Th22 cells might be of clinical profit in both E-MDS and L-MDS patients. Further studies on more patients are needed to substantiate whether this is indeed the case, and it is necessary to clarify the situation of Th22 cells in MDS bone marrow.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: DxM LlS LZ JP MH. Performed the experiments: LlS LZ SY XyH YxS TT. Analyzed the data: LlS LZ XgL. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: DxM LZ NH. Wrote the paper: LlS LZ YH DxM.
Some pathogenic Clostridium and Bacillus species produce structurally and functionally related binary protein toxins. Amongst the clostridia, binary toxins are produced by Clostridium botulinum (C2), Clostridium difficile (CDT), Clostridium perfringens (iota), as well as Clostridium spiroforme (CST) [1?]. These toxins consist of distinct proteins (A and B) not linked in solution and respectively possess ADP-ribosyltransferase, as well as cell-binding/membrane translocation, properties [2,4?]. Upon cytosolic entry, A-components mono-ADP-ribosylate globular (G)-actin at arginine-177 that then inhibits actin filament formation and destroys the cytoskeleton, ultimately rounding cells [2]. Iota, CDT, and CST toxins represent the iota family that share high sequence homology (81 identity among B components), form functional inter-species chimeras, and are cross-neutralized by heterologous antibody [1?3]. In contrast, C2 toxin does not form biologically-active chimeras with any iota-family components. The B components of iota-family and C2 toxins share only 44 sequence identity, and the latter uniquely binds to asparagine-linked carbohydrates on an unidentified cell-surface protein [8,9]. Recent reports reveal that lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor (LSR) is a cell-surfacereceptor for C. difficile CDT, C. perfringens iota toxin, and C. spiroforme CST [10,11]. In contrast, C. botulinum C2 toxin does not bind LSR [10]. These binary toxins form complexes on targeted cells after release from the bacterium as separate proteins [1,2,12?7]. B components initially bind to the cell surface, Title Loaded From File either as monomer or ring-shaped homo-heptamers formed in solution, and the A components dock to B components on the cell surface. These AB complexes are internalized into endosomes, followed by A component(s) release into the cytosol via pores formed by B heptamers under acidic conditions [2,12,14?8]. Previous studies 22948146 reveal that the protease-activated B component of iota toxin (Ib) associates with lipid rafts on Vero cells [14,17] via a pronase-susceptible protein not affected by other proteases, lipases, or lectins [13]. To facilitate discovery of potential proteins involved in the intoxication process, there was quantitative 18 O/16O-based proteomic profiling of lipid rafts isolated from Vero cells incubated with, and without, Ib [19]. Results revealed ninety different proteins with increased relative Title Loaded From File concentrations in lipid rafts from cells incubated with Ib. One of the proteins most highly enriched in Ib-containing rafts was CD44, a type I cell-CD44 and Iota-Family Toxinssurface glycoprotein involved in diverse functions among different cell types [20,21]. We perf.Ally the apoptosis of bone marrow. The numerical alterations of Th22 subset in early and late disease stage would suggest that shifty in the dynamics of Th22 could be a parameter affecting disease progression, exerting antithetical effects in the regulation of immune homeostasis and tumor immunity. Blockade of Th22 cells might be of clinical profit in both E-MDS and L-MDS patients. Further studies on more patients are needed to substantiate whether this is indeed the case, and it is necessary to clarify the situation of Th22 cells in MDS bone marrow.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: DxM LlS LZ JP MH. Performed the experiments: LlS LZ SY XyH YxS TT. Analyzed the data: LlS LZ XgL. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: DxM LZ NH. Wrote the paper: LlS LZ YH DxM.
Some pathogenic Clostridium and Bacillus species produce structurally and functionally related binary protein toxins. Amongst the clostridia, binary toxins are produced by Clostridium botulinum (C2), Clostridium difficile (CDT), Clostridium perfringens (iota), as well as Clostridium spiroforme (CST) [1?]. These toxins consist of distinct proteins (A and B) not linked in solution and respectively possess ADP-ribosyltransferase, as well as cell-binding/membrane translocation, properties [2,4?]. Upon cytosolic entry, A-components mono-ADP-ribosylate globular (G)-actin at arginine-177 that then inhibits actin filament formation and destroys the cytoskeleton, ultimately rounding cells [2]. Iota, CDT, and CST toxins represent the iota family that share high sequence homology (81 identity among B components), form functional inter-species chimeras, and are cross-neutralized by heterologous antibody [1?3]. In contrast, C2 toxin does not form biologically-active chimeras with any iota-family components. The B components of iota-family and C2 toxins share only 44 sequence identity, and the latter uniquely binds to asparagine-linked carbohydrates on an unidentified cell-surface protein [8,9]. Recent reports reveal that lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptor (LSR) is a cell-surfacereceptor for C. difficile CDT, C. perfringens iota toxin, and C. spiroforme CST [10,11]. In contrast, C. botulinum C2 toxin does not bind LSR [10]. These binary toxins form complexes on targeted cells after release from the bacterium as separate proteins [1,2,12?7]. B components initially bind to the cell surface, either as monomer or ring-shaped homo-heptamers formed in solution, and the A components dock to B components on the cell surface. These AB complexes are internalized into endosomes, followed by A component(s) release into the cytosol via pores formed by B heptamers under acidic conditions [2,12,14?8]. Previous studies 22948146 reveal that the protease-activated B component of iota toxin (Ib) associates with lipid rafts on Vero cells [14,17] via a pronase-susceptible protein not affected by other proteases, lipases, or lectins [13]. To facilitate discovery of potential proteins involved in the intoxication process, there was quantitative 18 O/16O-based proteomic profiling of lipid rafts isolated from Vero cells incubated with, and without, Ib [19]. Results revealed ninety different proteins with increased relative concentrations in lipid rafts from cells incubated with Ib. One of the proteins most highly enriched in Ib-containing rafts was CD44, a type I cell-CD44 and Iota-Family Toxinssurface glycoprotein involved in diverse functions among different cell types [20,21]. We perf.